Validating Entrepreneurial Intentions Questionnaire to Assess the Impact of Entrepreneurship Education

Entrepreneurship education plays an important role in social and economic development of a society through providing self-employment and job opportunities for others. Entrepreneurship education can catalyse entrepreneurial mindset through developing entrepreneurial intentions of graduates. Current study aims to validate entrepreneurial intentions questionnaire in order to study the impact of entrepreneurship education on student’s intentions to become an entrepreneur. The question under study is “does entrepreneurship education impact entrepreneurial intentions of the students?” Study has the following objectives; 1) to study the impact of entrepreneurship education on attitude of the students to become an entrepreneur; 2) to find out perceived behavioural control of the entrepreneurship education students to become an entrepreneur; 3) to understand the impact of subjective norms on entrepreneurship education students to become an entrepreneur; 4) to assess the impact of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial intentions of the students. This study will utilize theory of planned behaviour as theoretical framework of the study. According to theory of planned behaviour entrepreneurial intentions of a person are formed through a complex process with some antecedents. The antecedents of entrepreneurial intentions are comprised of attitude of the persons towards entrepreneurship; Subjective norms of a person towards entrepreneurship; and perceived behavioural control of a person towards entrepreneurial intentions. It is a quantitative study based on casual comparative research design. Entrepreneurial Intentions Questionnaire was developed based on theory of planned behaviour. It was pilot tested on students (n=60) for reliability and validation tests. It was validated to make a comparison between technology education students’ (n=240) who have participated in entrepreneurship education and technology education students’ (n=302) who have not participated in entrepreneurship education. The findings of the study have shown appropriateness of theory of planned behaviour to measure entrepreneurial intentions of the students. Students who have participated in entrepreneurship education have shown higher intentions than non participants. Study was concluded with the fact entrepreneurship education does not impact directly to the intentions of the students but it has influence on entrepreneurial intentions of the students through antecedents of intentions. The questionnaire validated for study can be useful for further measurement of entrepreneurial intentions of the students. Cronbach’s Alpha was used to test reliability of questionnaire. Factor analysis was used to test validity of the questionnaire. t-test was applied to find out difference in intentions between entrepreneurship education participants and non participants. Structural equation model (SEM)was used to find out relationship between entrepreneurship education and antecedents of entrepreneurial intentions. This study was knowledge addition about entrepreneurial intentions of the students in Pakistani context and impact of entrepreneurship education. Future study can be conducted to study the new venture creation process of the students with high entrepreneurial intentions.


Introduction
Entrepreneurship education plays an important role on the development of intention.Growth of entrepreneurship education is evidence that students with intentions to run their own business prefer to choose entrepreneurship education program in order to understand new venture creation process (Galloway & Brown, 2002).Hansemark (1998) says that entrepreneurship education also impacts the Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) students attitude to choose entrepreneurship as their career.Kuratko (2005) says that it is new emerging trend that educational institutes are going to emerge entrepreneurship education in their degree programs in a very innovative way to make it challenging for learners.Charney and Libecap (2000) says that entrepreneurship education has become important for the students of TVET in order to enhance their entrepreneurial skills to enable them for opportunity recognition and risk taking through linking academics with market needs.

Statement of the Problem
Is entrepreneurship teachable?According to Cunningham and Lischeron (1991); Henry, Hill, and Leitch (2004), there is an ongoing debate whether entrepreneurship education is teachable to students to become entrepreneurs or not?Herron and Robinson (1993) says that entrepreneurial behavior is concerned with personality traits and psychological characteristics of the entrepreneurs.This is the reason that some researchers believe that entrepreneurship is not teachable.However, most of the researchers have the point of view that entrepreneurship can be learned from successful entrepreneurial parents, or through proper education and experiences.These learning experiences from entrepreneurial parents and personal experience will enhance the probability of success in new venture creation.
It is needed to better understand what is impact of different aspects of entrepreneurship education on student's outcomes in the shape of entrepreneurial mind set and skills?Henry, Hill, and Leitch (2005) says that since now there are very few studies those found out link between entrepreneurship education and students outcomes as well entrepreneurial activity and success.There is also shortage of experimental studies with focus in the area of impact of entrepreneurship education intervention programs and there are also less available tracer studies to study that whether students have become entrepreneur or not (Gundlach & Zivnuska, 2010).

Aims and Objectives of the Study
This research aims to validate entrepreneurial intentions in order to study the impact of entrepreneurship education on student's entrepreneurial intentions.
These are the objectives of the study; 1-To validate entrepreneurial intentions questionnaire 2-To find out impact of entrepreneurship education on antecedents of entrepreneurial intentions of the students 3-To find out impact of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial intentions of the students 4-To find out the difference between entrepreneurial intentions of the students of entrepreneurship education participants and non-participants

Significance of the Study
This research study is an attempt to fill the knowledge gap in the area of entrepreneurship education with focus on the impact of the entrepreneurial curricula on entrepreneurial intentions of the TVET students in Punjab province.It is knowledge addition in previously existing theoretical framework of entrepreneurial intentions by adding impact of entrepreneurship education.It has examined the impact of subjective norms in context of Punjab province on entrepreneurial intentions of the students.This research is helpful for policy makers to give them an insight to encourage entrepreneurship among students through entrepreneurial TVET.TVET institutes may use this research to develop TVET programs in order to increase students' intentions towards entrepreneurship.
TVET stake holders such as TEVTAs, PVTC, NAVTTC, PBTE and TTB can utilize this research for integration of entrepreneurship education program for TVET students' benefit.For example, TEVTAs and PVTC can develop entrepreneurship education curricula, teacher training programs and PBTE can develop assessment system by utilizing this research.This research will also provide guidelines for TVET curriculum developers, assessment and evaluation experts and teacher trainers to design the program for better delivery of the entrepreneurship education curricula, assessment, teacher training modules respectively for TVET students in Punjab.
The study also intends to be a source of future reference for further research in the area of entrepreneurship and TVET.

Literature Review and Theoretical Framework
The current study has grounded its theoretical foundations on Theory of Planned behavior presented by Ajzen (1991).This theory is holds its position among prominent psychological theories on entrepreneurship (Armitage & Conner, 2001;Asghar, Hakkarainen, & Nada, 2016;Kidwell & Jewell, 2003;Long, 2011;Walker, Grimshaw, & Armstrong, 2001;Watson et al., 2014;Zemore & Ajzen, 2014).It was considered appropriate for current study because of the notion that the research entrepreneurial mindset can be carried out in survey design research.The theory claim that one of the best ways to identify entrepreneurial mindset is to ask about intentions of individuals.Another distinguishing feature of this theory is that it presets antecedents of modifications in behavior through intentions (Fretschner, 2014;Kaiser, 2006;Liao, Chen, & Yen, 2007).These modifications in behavior through intentions are applicable to formation of entrepreneurial intentions on the due to education and training.The antecedents that modify behavior as based on the factor.According to this theory the behaviors are formed by combination perceived behavioral control; personal attitude and subjective norms.These three factors influence significantly on intentions of an individual to adopt entrepreneurship as career of (Fretschner, 2014;Lortie & Castogiovanni, 2015;Serida & Tristán, 2011).Another most important factor that influence on these three factors is role of education and training.
Underlying assumption of current study is that education plays vital role in modification in perceived behavior, personal attitude and subjective norms thus leading towards the formation of positive entrepreneurial intentions.
The factor of education has been added in these antecedents to examine the impact of entrepreneurship education.Following is comprehensive description of antecedents of theory of planned behavior.

a. Perceived Behavioral Control
One of the main components of entrepreneurial intentions is perceived behavior control (Krueger, Reilly, & Carsrud, 2000).This assumption is grounded on Bandura's (1986) theory of selfefficacy presenting that perceived efficacy greatly influence on behavior of student.It is considered as a conscious process to control a situation (Fretschner 2014;Meyer, Zacharakis, & De Castro, 1993).Education plays an important role in development of high self-efficacy through providing appropriate learning experiences (Bandura, 1986;Krueger et al., 2000;Seligman, 1990).

b. Attitude
Second component of theory of planned behavior is attitude.It is defined as an outcome of behavior or belief (Krueger et al., 2000).Attitude towards entrepreneurship is evaluative criteria towards perceived likelihood to establish and run a business.
It also influence on values given to need of personal wealth, associated prestige, social benefits and personal independence (Krueger et al., 2000;Serida & Tristán, 2011;Shapero, 1982).

c. Subjective Norms
Normative beliefs are the perceptions formed on the basis of opinion of people you are surrounded with including family and friends.The motivation and support provided by family and friends play a significant role is choosing certain career path.These believes can be measured by using a valid construct on anticipated support from family and friends.Though these are weak predictors of entrepreneurial intentions but significance of influence of opinion of family, friends, mentors, teachers and guides cannot be ignored (Ajzen, 1987;Bagozzi, Baumgartner, & Yi, 1992;Krueger et al., 2000;Lortie & Castogiovanni, 2015).

d. Entrepreneurship education
In above three antecedents of theory of planned behavior, a fourth factor was added named education.The entrepreneurship education programs are widely offered all around the globe (Kuratko, 2003).They are based on the assumption that education plays role in formation of entrepreneurial intentions, so its role cannot be overlooked.
Owing to importance of factors influencing on formation of intentions for establishing and running one's own venture lead towards the assumption that education in addition to antecedents of behavior play a significant role in increasing intentions to adopt entrepreneurship as career choice.Following figure shows theoretical framework adopted by current study.

Method
It is a quantitative study based on casual comparative research design.Entrepreneurial Intentions Questionnaire was developed based on theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991).It was pilot tested on students (5 items; n=60; α =.867) for reliability and validation tests.It was validated to make a comparison between technology educations students' (n=240) who have participated in entrepreneurship education and technology educations students' (n=302) who have not participated in entrepreneurship education.

Entrepreneurship Education
Participants Non Participants

240
Questionnaire was consist of three sections to get response from students about their learning and entrepreneurial intentions.First section comprises of theory of planned behaviour constructs; entrepreneurial intentions, attitude towards entrepreneurship, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms.Second construct consists of entrepreneurship education.Section three has demographics information.Section one has item distribution; 6 questions for entrepreneurial intentions, 6 questions for attitude towards entrepreneurship, 6 questions for perceived behavioral control and 6 items for subjective norms.Second section has 6 items related to entrepreneurship education.Third section comprises of demographics variables: gender (male/ female), name of city (Region01/Region02/Region 03), entrepreneurship education (participation/ non participation), parental work background (self employed/ unemployed/ employed), and work experience (experienced/ not experienced).
Questionnaire was same for control group and experimental group except entrepreneurship education part which was omitted for control group as they had not participated in entrepreneurship course.Here term control group is applicable for students who have not participated in entrepreneurship education while term experimental group is applicable for students group who have participated in entrepreneurship education course.
Every item has been measured by 5-point likert scale.Point 1 represents high level of disagreement, point 2 represents simple disagreement, point 3 represents neutral statement, point 4 is for simple agreement and point 5 is meant for high level of agreement.Survey participants were asked to tick or circle the relevant point to show their concern towards statements of the questionnaire.t-test was applied for comparison purpose, Regression was applied to study the relation between antecedents of entrepreneurial intentions.SEM was used for validation of the questionnaire.

Reliability
Questionnaire was pilot tested for measuring reliability and validity of the instrument.Pilot test was conducted on 60 students.60 students of TVET were selected who has participated in entrepreneurship education.Over all reliability of five factors scale has been remained Cronbach Alpha 0.867 as shown in the table 2;  Data screening was performed and basic assumptions were assessed for the application of SEM such as homogeneity, non-spurious relationship, normality, uncorrelated error terms and outliers.Outliers were observed through upper and lower values of quartiles of data.Data was free of outliers.Data distribution of Independent variables such as attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurship education as well as dependent variable such as entrepreneurial intentions showed approximately normal distribution with z-values (1.96 < X < -1.96) of the skewness and kurtosis (Cramer & Howitt, 2004;Doane & Seward, 2011), Sahpiro-Wilk's test, (p>.05) (Razali & Wah, 2011;Shapiro & Wilk, 1965) and graphics of normal Q-Q plot.The scatter plot showed the distribution of independent variables around the dependent variable slope which shows the linearity with positive relationship among variables.The assumption of uncorrelated error term was also assessed prior to execute SEM.The residuals plot showed that there was no violation of assumption.
The assumption of Non-spurious relationship was confirmed through true observed covariance.The demographics of sample showed homogeneity of the sample through t-test (p>0.5).All questions have significant path relation with major factor as shown in the given table 3 which are normal for validation; AMOS software was used to test the relationship between dependent and independent variables through Structural Equation Model.Path analysis was chosen to study the relationship among multiple independent variables and dependent variable (Ullman, 1996).Path analysis a subset of SEM was essential to use due to relationship of entrepreneurship education which was estimated as independent variable on the dependent variables of the antecedents of entrepreneurial intention.SEM was also used due its ability to estimate the goodness of fit to describe that suggested model is fit or not (Kline, 1998).SEM has following parameters.The correlation was run to test the existence of relation between variables for further testing of hypothesis.The correlations of entrepreneurship education group were found significantly positive among the variables as shown in Table 11.The correlations among non participants of entrepreneurship education group were also measured.These were observed significantly positive as shown in the table.

Comparison of Entrepreneurship Education Participants and Non Participants
The following hypotheses were developed for comparison of the entrepreneurial intentions of entrepreneurship education participants and non participants; Hypothesis 01: There is no significant difference between the intentions of the student's those have participated in entrepreneurship education and those have not participated in entrepreneurship towards their intention to start their own business.
Hypothesis 02: There is no difference between the attitudes of student's those participated in entrepreneurship education and did not participate in entrepreneurship education towards their intention to start their own business.
Hypothesis 03: there is no difference of the student's subjective norms those has participated in entrepreneurship education and those has not participated in entrepreneurship education towards intentions to start their own business.
Hypothesis 04: There is no difference of the student's perceived behavioural control those has participated in entrepreneurship education and those has not participated in entrepreneurship education towards their intentions to start their own business.t-test was run to test for comparison purpose between two groups.The findings as shown in the table reflect that entrepreneurship education participants have more intentions towards entrepreneurship; entrepreneurial attitude; perceived behavioural control; and subjective norms than non entrepreneurship education participant group.Hypothesis 01 "there is no significant difference between the intentions of the student's those have participated in entrepreneurship education and those have not participated in entrepreneurship towards their intention to start their own business" was rejected with t=6.15,F=53.11 and .000significant level.The mean values (4.27) of entrepreneurship education participants were higher than mean value (3.87) of non entrepreneurship education participant's intentions towards entrepreneurship.
Hypothesis 02: "There is no difference between the attitudes of student's those participated in entrepreneurship education and did not participate in entrepreneurship education towards their intention to start their own business" was rejected with t=5.83,F=34.86 and .000significant level.The mean values (4.53) of entrepreneurship education participants were higher than mean value (4.06) of non entrepreneurship education participant's attitude towards entrepreneurial intentions.Hypothesis 03: "there is no difference of the student's subjective norms those has participated in entrepreneurship education and those has not participated in entrepreneurship education towards intentions to start their own business" was rejected with t=8.39,F=26.81 and .000significant level.The mean values (4.23) of entrepreneurship education participants were higher than mean value (3.68) of non entrepreneurship education participant's subjective norms towards entrepreneurial intentions.
Hypothesis 04: "There is no difference of the student's perceived behavioural control those has participated in entrepreneurship education and those has not participated in entrepreneurship education towards their intentions to start their own business" was rejected with t=5.62,F=21.92 and .000significant level.The mean values (4.35) of entrepreneurship education participants were higher than mean value (4.02) of non entrepreneurship education participant's perceived behavioural control towards entrepreneurial intentions.

Testing the Model for the Theory of Planned Behaviour
AMOS 20.0 was used for the testing of TPB model through SEM path analysis, attitude towards entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial intentions and perceived behavioural control was considered as endogenous variables and subjective norms was considered as exogenous variable.Raw data was input to the structural equations as shown in figure 4.

Testing the Education-Entrepreneurial Intention Model
In the path model, entrepreneurship education was defined as exogenous variable.Attitude towards entrepreneurship, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control and entrepreneurial intention were defined as endogenous variables in the model.The purpose of the model was to study the specific influence of the entrepreneurship education on the antecedent attitudes and intention toward entrepreneurship as shown in Figure 5 and Table 17.17.All the paths were significant (P<.05).The strongest path was between entrepreneurship education and subjective norms towards entrepreneurial intentions (path coefficient = 0.809, p<0.01), entrepreneurship education towards perceieved behaviroal control (path coefficient= .314,p<0.01), subjective norms towards perceieved behavorial control (path coefficient= .444,p<.01), entrepreneurship education towards attitude (path coefficient= .494,p<0.01), attitude towards entrepreneurial intentions (path coefficient= .364,p<.01), perceieved behavioral control towards intentions (path coefficient= .345,p<0.01), while the weakest path was between subjective norms towards entrepreneurial intentions and entrepreneurial intentions (path coefficient = 0.131, p<0.05).Therefore, all the hypotheses of the conceptual model were accepted at a level of 0.05.

Discussion and Conclusion
Students who have participated in entrepreneurship education have shown more entrepreneurial intentions than students who have not participated in entrepreneurship education.The results of study are supported by the evident from literature that entrepreneurship education plays an important role in enhancing intentions towards establishment of one's own venture (Long 2011;Souitaris, Zerbinati, & Al-Laham, 2007;Young, 1993).Attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control towards entrepreneurial intentions were higher of entrepreneurship education participants than non-participants.It shows the impact of entrepreneurship education on student's intentions to become an entrepreneur.This finding is in line with previous research studies showing that higher level of education leads towards higher intention to towards venture formation (Levie & Autio, 2008;Long, 2011).
The results also present role of three antecedents of theory of planned behavior on one another as well as on intentions to chose entrepreneurship as career.For example effect of subjective norms on change in intention of students to adopt entrepreneurship as career is directly supported by persuation theory (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993;Long, 2011) and cognitive theory (Festinger, 1957).This leads towards assumption that individuals are influenced by the opinion of the people surrounding tem thus effecting decision of him/her to become an entrepreneur.Similarly, subjective norms also influence on percieved behaviorial control and is supported by Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory.These theories support the idea that if the environment is supportive and training is provided, it leave positive influence on intention of students to become self-employed (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993;Feather, 1982).In previous researches the role of subjective norms has been studied very weak to influence the decision to become and entrepreneur (Autio, Keeley, Klofsten, Parker, & Hay, 2001;Krueger et al., 2000;Long, 2011).In this study the role of subjective norms is weak as compared to other variables but it has influence on student's decision to become an entrepreneur.It shows that social peers have influence on student's decisions.
Entrepreneurship education is based on the philosophy of increasing knowledge about business, training of skills required to establish a business and positive attitude towards selfemployment.It can be assumed that if the students are provided with set of knowledge and skills it will directly influence on their decision to become an entrepreneur.The education increase self confidence by providing training to control and change behavior through knowledge and skills thus leading towards higher intentions (Henry et al., 2005;Long 2011;Souitaris et al., 2007).
Less is known about relationship between antecedents of theory of planned behavior and role of education on intention of students to become entrepreneurs.The findings of this research describe that there is relationship between attitude and perceived behavioral control.Subjective Norms also influence the perceived behavioral control.Social cognitive theory of Bandura (1986) confirms this relationship of perceived behavioral control and social pressure.

Suggestions
• Entrepreneurship education should made part of higher education in order to develop entrepreneurial intentions of the students.
• Government should also develop support services along with entrepreneurship education to promote entrepreneurial intentions.
• Theory of planned behaviour can be used to study the entrepreneurial intentions of the students.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Conceptual Framework based on TPB

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Entrepreneurship Group Construct with Factors

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Testing the TPB model

Table 2 .
Reliability Statistics Same questionnaire was used for control group and entrepreneurship group except entrepreneurship education factor which was added for entrepreneurship group.Control group was not asked about entrepreneurship education factor because they had not participated in entrepreneurship course.Entrepreneurship group's construct with its factors is shown in figure2.

Table 3 .
Basic Values

Table 5 .
Base Line Comparison

s Construct Validity Control
group's construct has four factors those are similar with experimental group's four basic factors such as entrepreneurial intentions; perceived behavioral control; attitude towards entrepreneurship; and subjective norms as shown in figure3.Control Group's construct with Factors Skewness and Kurtosis is between -2.00 and +2.00 which shows normal distribution of the data in probability curve as shown in table 5.

Table 6 .
Basic Values

Table 8 .
Regression with Construct Levene's test was run to test the homogeneity of the control group demographic background (gender, age, work experience and parental work background) to the entrepreneurship/ experimental group.Results are shown in the table.Test results shows that both groups have homogenous demographic background.It is evidence of the similar demographic background of the control group and experimental group students.Both groups had also same educational background as they were in same year of study.

Table 9 .
Homogeneity of Demographics between Control Group and Entrepreneurship Group

Table 12 .
Correlation between Non Participants of Entrepreneurship Education Group's Variables

Table 13 .
Comparison between Entrepreneurship Education Participants and Non Participants

Table 14 .
Independent Samples Test

Table 15 .
Model Fit Summary